12.21.2008
一個問題的暫時放下
我以區域政治對於全球組合的想像開始,同時談到技術殖民環境對於農業運用的例子,如何為當前的生質燃料的使用鋪陳路線。進一步討論,農業技術如同醫療技術一般,從田間觀察,農場規劃,到實驗室研究的角度不同。主要的生質燃料觀察例子,我用了社區,實驗室,還有公司三個層面來看。不過我太著重在講這三個層面的發展階段以及可不可行的效益評量,對於每個類型發展的社會脈絡介紹的不夠詳細,反而失去了我原來希望談論「實際操作者對於技術的接受方式如何轉化為信仰與身體感知的非技術層面」。而實際上,這三個例子代表的是在生質燃料這個領域不同的層面:社區例子,代表的是在生產原物料的政策發展問題;實驗室層面,是在轉換技術上使用的觀點和相關技術;公司層面,是關於政府與投資者在規模上的遊說和協商過程。這些問題都應該要單獨討論,而我原先想以台灣的生質燃料發展引伸到農業技術與政治策略的討論,只能夠很片面的描述這個現象。
會後,幾個與會同學以及邀請的童老師都給了我很好的問題。有同學問,我在過程中所談的農業技術的技術層面到底為何,是純粹指種植,育種,還是包括農機,肥料,農藥,任何與作物生長與收穫有關的知識都算呢?而在這個脈絡底下,國家的生質燃料產業,與地區的有機農業,對於技術的理解與傳播是否不同。我的確覺得這個問題很大,而且打中我沒有處理的模糊地帶。我只能說,原先我以為的技術,應該綜合一點說是知識,而知識如何操作以及對誰開放,的確和政府的政策有關連。這方面要嘛我要仔細釐清,要嘛要做切割。另外有同學問,社區經驗的例子不清楚,且這些例子如何反應台灣搖擺的生質燃料政策也沒有被談到。的確,對我來講,現在最糟糕的是,原來做能源作物種植的社區都停擺了,把能源作物當作社區發展觀光賣點的社區也把這部分切割給廠商了。而這些人的種植層面,和農業技術的轉變其實沒有什麼關係,所以社區的模式空洞了起來。這變成這個計畫的致命傷。所以我能夠進一步談的非常有限。童老師問到一個很有趣的問題,是我原來在訪問時沒有特別注意到的。她認為,農人對於自己種植出來的東西應該有一些延伸性的情感,身體的勞作換來的產出這樣的連帶感很強,而能源作物又不能品嚐。於是她問農人們對於把作物做成燃料這件事情,有沒有任何倫理性的討論?這方面我之前在簡短的接觸農民時還沒有直接問到,但是這個問題大概是這裡面最最人類學的問題。我發現我的觀察一直被各種「技術」的想像所掩蓋了。另外一位同學也提到,如果把農業技術人員(我裡面提到的一些重要知識傳遞者)當作傳教士,農民種植不一樣的作物或者使用不同的技術是一種宗教的改宗過程,那麼農民如何接受這種宗教的變化?(她還指出有社會結構以及組織論的兩種模式,生質燃料的發展似乎都缺乏)這也是個很有趣的問題,如果技術的改變是改宗,那麼我的回應是,神蹟是不是應該要天天發生,使得傳教士可以常常去解說他們引入的新宗教。對於神蹟的展現,什麼是可以拿來展示的,的確也是可以討論。最後也談到,從日治時代就已經熟悉的種稻技術,如何仍然可以稱為「有技術」在裡面的觀點,這也重新回到我對於農業技術的定義。
而在這次演講之後,我正式地把生質燃料的討論放下。現在目標先以兩個有機米和蔬菜種植的社區為例,來看「技術轉變」的過程。不知道原來期待我做這個題目的人怎麼想,不過我計畫把這部分的討論將來當作整個論文發展的最後部分,如果可以連的起來的話。現在,就暫時把他放下吧。
12.04.2008
再怎麼野蠻,也不能亂報
當時看到這個消息覺得很誇張,而報紙(還不只一家)慎重其事的把他當作少見的「國際新聞」來報。這本身有很多問題:首先,對於新幾內亞部落文化背景的實際狀況不瞭解的情況下,這種舉動的報導像是一種「民智未開」的世界搜奇。再者,婦女們也許真的有殺嬰的舉動,但是對於男人的世界真的只能用這種悲傷而訣絕的方式回應嗎?我有疑惑。再三,這種報導的來源通常是國際媒體,但是為何選擇這個新聞而不是其他呢?哪個媒體選擇放這樣的消息呢?
今天就看到,Savage mind上新幾內亞人類學家的回應,基本上認為這是傳媒對於新幾內亞想像的拼貼與複製。對於當地真實的狀況,不但不瞭解反而更扭曲。其中還有另一位環境人類學家Paige West的回應。
請見:Male infanticide in Papua New Guniea? Get Real!
晚一點再來增加對這個新聞的想法。
12.24.2007
綠色陣線的能源作物與有機農業討論
12/19(三) 能源作物與有機農業:印度與巴西的對話 記錄與感想
綠色陣線 陳思穎
巴 西的農地使用及分配追溯到歐洲大量移民之巴西開墾的殖民時期,幾百年下來除了殖民母國葡萄牙外,也包括許多歐洲國家,甚至亞洲國家的日本也到巴西尋找新的 土地開發機會;從來沒有經歷過土地改革的巴西,便在這個歷史脈絡下,才有我們今天看到的甘蔗生產生殖乙醇的奇蹟。利用大面積栽種的能源作物,必須依賴大片 土地的單一化栽種。從70年代發展甘蔗提煉生質酒精技術到現在,儘管政府強制介入的政策讓生質能源替代的比例驚人,成果明顯,但背後不免承擔許多社會、經濟及生態問題。
過 去巴西殖民時期的大莊園地主,現在多被大企業掌控,開發項目很重要的部分,即是現在大家期待能解決石油危機與全球暖化的生質乙醇-甘蔗。在企業的大面積栽 種下,農民成為一年兩次的採收工人,人數的龐大,也讓甘蔗田週邊出現猶如城市貧民窟;另外,原本生活在自己土地上的農民成為移工,也造成農民經濟的問題。
然而弔詭的是,由於甘蔗能源已不需政府補貼,且產值相當高,農工反而能因此要求更高的工資,也讓這些投資的大企業有了保障勞工權益的理由,來要求美國政府開放進口市場。
另 外,在大家看好巴西甘蔗的能源作物時,它的耕作方式卻也因為大規模的生產,壓低成本,以量取勝的前提下,使用大量的化肥與農藥,甚至需要利用飛機從空中灑 農藥,方便管理產地。也因此,可能在我們期待能源作物是全球環境問題的解藥時,理解整個生產過程可能面臨到的是更多危害環境的方式,才是能思索出一個更符 合環保的做法。
除了能源作物的土地及環境問題外,其實在巴西的南部也有一個反其道而行的農民草根運動-有機農業的運動。其中最有名的是Eco Vida Agroecology Network。1998年這個聯盟在巴西南部的Santa Catarina成立,並且以20年前在巴西南部的Porto Alegre的在地生產、有機農業、小農經濟相互結合的健康食物合作社COOLMEIA為基礎,到現在已經擴及巴西南部三個大省。整個聯盟包括生產者的小農、消費者機構、小農工廠、及許多的NGO,利用閒置空間舉辦農夫市集,且有自己的認證系統,試圖在經濟、環境兼顧的原則下,走出一條和國際貿易體系截然不同的糧食產銷道路。
將空間越過到地球的另一邊,同樣地,在印度仍然面臨的是小農經濟破產的問題。從綠色革命時西方引進的雜交種子、化學農藥、肥料讓印度的農業生態不在具有生命後,更面臨WTO的國際貿易及智慧財產權,將印度的農業商品化、專利化,最直接的衝擊便是沒有經濟後盾的小農,十年來已有15萬農民自殺,主要原因是債務的惡性循環。
於是,Vandana Shiva和Navdanya基金會的努力,便是利用小農經濟和生態循環的結合,讓農民利用有機農業的方式,先保有自己的糧食自主權,也讓生態和經濟復甦。
對於在台灣看似只有健康和中產階級消費的有機農業來說,Vandana Shiva及Navdanya基金會帶給我們的,是更全面的有機農業視野;包括台灣一樣必須面對的WTO的 糧食自主權、基因改造的生態安全問題,還有全球食物由農企業掌控下,享有生產技術及出口兩方面的大量補貼,造成的問題不只是讓食物經過低價的農藥、化肥、 加工技術,再銷往世界各地,強迫第三世界的人必須面對高血壓、糖尿病、癌症等,原本只有在已開發國家出現的文明病,另一方面更用大量的補貼,壓低食物價 格,讓農民佔人口多數的第三世界國家,面臨在地生產的食物無法和進口食物競爭而破產。
而在有機農業的技術面上,Navdanya基 金會利用種子銀行的交換方式,讓作物藉著生物多樣性的繁衍,找出配合各種自然生態的品種,不再倚賴雜交種子或基因改造種子。另外,他們也教導農民堆肥、生 物性農藥、土壤分析等技術,而這些技術皆是考量農民的經濟弱勢,而發展出來的和印度的自然生態、天候條件,甚至傳統農耕技術的對話。相較於台灣有機農業的 規範侷限於耕作過程,缺乏對種子來源的規定,且農民因轉作有機的高成本投入而卻步,或許在有機農業的遠景更應該放在台灣本土傳統農耕方式的傳承。
對Vandana Shiva來 說,生質能源的開發不是永續的發展方式。就像巴西的亞馬遜雨林被大量砍伐以種植大豆,及印尼的雨林被大量砍伐以種植棕櫚樹,這些能源作物以量為前提,破壞 雨林加劇全球暖化的程度,遠大於最後生質能源能減少的溫室氣體排放效果。或許在我們急於尋求替代能源時,應該先思考人類都應享有的能源是如何在世界貿易體 系下被濫用,包括倚賴大量補助,充滿化學的食物,及遠從世界某個地方,搭著以成本被壓低的石油飛行的飛機來到消費者的餐桌,更包括人類應該如何使用自然資 源。
詳情可見綠陣的網站介紹
那天我排除了一些本來需要做的事情去參加,聽完後有許多心得在心裡迴響。也因為這些心得,我正式決定要把題目換成「能源與農業轉型」的研究。並不是因為聽的內容得到完全的啟發,而是在聽的過程中,我感受到身為企業雇員與人類學家在這個議題上的矛盾與不同立場。關於「知識」如何散佈,以及「環境正義」與資本主義規模如何互相排斥彼此的思考模式,我覺得似乎比能源與農業議題更有趣味。
最近真的超忙,也很累,需要晚一點再把更仔細的心得寫下來。
11.30.2007
Contact with Faye Ginsburg
某個星期天早上,加拿大來的女導演突然在會場身體不適,當時其他工作人員都分身乏術,並且需要有個可以用英文在醫院幫忙的人;我自告奮勇帶她過 去,Faye人很好,知道後決定一起陪伴這位導演一起去。在ER的時候,因為這位導演一直擔心自己是吃了After Pill的關係,所以會噁心頭痛。我翻譯給醫生聽她似乎不是很自在,於是Faye把醫生的解釋理由重新轉述一遍,因為她以前作的是Abortion的研究 對這方面的狀況有一定理解。這位女導演後來覺得好多了。結果我們在等待的時候,談了好一陣子我的論文題目。
這次重逢,我心生一念大膽的問Faye,可不可以請她做我的校外委員?她立刻答應,太棒了!
9.18.2007
符咒如何有效?
中國時報 2007.09.18
入聯符粗糙 沒有神力啦!
劉培柏/北縣淡水(獸醫師)
九一五陳總統領導的入聯大遊行中,沒有任何國旗,卻出現書寫「敕令聯合國開門」巨型符籙黃布條。陳總統常聲稱隨身攜帶平安符,才能在三一九槍擊案逃過一劫。顯然他認為「入聯符」也會保佑成功吧?
筆者曾拜師研習過符籙製作而略知一二。「入聯符」書寫方式並不合乎正統符錄的要求;符錄最上端必須是道教最高神明「三清公」坐鎮的位置,常以「ˇˇˇ」或「○○○」紅色硃記表示,「入聯符」中卻用白字的「TAIWAN」,顯然不妥。再則雖有「聯合國開門」的「符身」,告訴神明要做什麼事,下端卻少了「符膽」和「符腳」,即該符沒有法力動員天兵天將共謀成事。總而言之,此「入聯符」是無效的。目前中國仍是無神論的國家,陳總統要以「入聯符」對抗中國,恐怕也行不通。
國人一般對符籙總是敬而遠之,但是越鄉下越有人信。筆者在農村向豬農介紹豬瘟疾病的防治時,都會將自製的「治豬瘟符」送給豬農貼在豬舍門口上方,同時說明張貼時,一定要用「藥引」才有效,所謂用藥引就是打疫苗啦!貼符籙是對豬農的心理建設,打疫苗是對豬隻的物質建設,二者合用才有效力,「入聯符」除製作方式不對外,也少了「台灣國必須是聯合國承認的國家」這個藥引配合,所以只能說是唬弄百姓的標語口號而已。
遊行儀式後,依符籙的規矩「入聯符」不可任意丟棄,否則是大不敬,必須燒成灰泡水,供善男信女服用,才能顯示向神明訴說的虔誠。您喝了嗎?
9.15.2007
To Be or not to be...
工作是一位非常熟識的朋友兼學長提供的。原來我只是想做一個可以不需要天天進辦公室的工作,甚至只要做英文書信書寫,收集公司需要的文件,配合公司方向來做一些事情即可。原來與學長兼老闆的同意也是如此。雖然我知道即使是這樣的安排,對於真正應該進行的田野工作仍然可能(而且應該必然)是一種傷害。畢竟一個人的時間就是固定的,並不可能在一天當中需要專注的做一件事情之外,把另一件事情也同時做好。(我因此要佩服我那位偉大的小學同學dear john,他常常為了家庭開銷的需要,身兼三職,真是太令人敬佩了)。尤其田野研究工作是一個要intensive投入時間,不斷反省目前進度與經由參與觀察所得資料的一種研究方式。真的找一份工作來做,其實是不太正確的。
同在研究路上獨行的Serry也交換過這樣的心得。她提到屆時在田野工作時會有一份在田野地點政府單位裡的工作,但是畢竟那是一個配合田野工作的行政業務,跟自己的研究會有關係,如同找到某個研究助理的工作;仍然會帶著相輔相成的效果。我的狀況其實是現有工作性質和田野研究分開,這樣就會造成一些排擠的問題。
那我什麼我還要做現在這個工作呢?什麼事情讓我竟然可能去耽誤自己的研究工作而做呢?答案是,能源事業。目前工作的這家公司是家準備在台灣發展生質燃料的公司。這樣的議題雖然看起來跟我的人類學研究有一段很大的距離,但是在未來的發展上卻讓我產生無限的興趣。能源當然是目前全世界面臨的問題,而我接觸到的公司業務卻讓我更可能去想像關於「能源人類學」的研究。容我自己在這裡抒發一下跟目前學術本業有段距離的想像:如同有一些人類學家已經在非洲和東南亞關切水以及地區資源造成環境資源分配,以及國家力量、財團勢力對於人民生活的吞噬的影響。我覺得現在碰觸到的生質能源發展和區域性投資,將可以配合以後在多點的田野工作,對於「能源農夫」的田野研究,成為另一種型態的區域性研究,以及全球化效應的地區反應。可能的型態是,日本資金,台灣技術,東南亞地區的種植與收穫,並且因此得到電力,改變當地的生活形態等等...
我輾轉了好幾次,很想寫信給在美國的指導老師,詢問是否可以改變成這個研究題目,讓我把研究本業和目前的工作內容結合在一起。一直沒有這樣做的理由是:我對自己目前想做的研究題目,關於原住民(甚或族群)媒體的題目仍然有很大的興趣,另一方面,我也不確定如果我一旦提出這樣的想法,老師會不會覺得我實際上沒有搞清楚狀況(或者他們也無法想像這樣的題材),以及可能會面臨到需要重新做comprehensive exam的程序等等,最重要的是,我所謂的「能源人類學」裡關於人的部分,我目前所得到的觀察大部分仍然在資本家與政府部門這方面,關於實際種植者以及對不同地區的「栽種文化」的影響,仍然沒有出現。最有可能的時程,我想應該是在我把目前手上想作的博士論文做完之後,才有可能進行這個議題。
天阿,我終於把我兩個月以來一直不敢講的「秘密」說出來了。算是給自己一個階段性的交代。但是,接下來我需要做的事情,卻會碰到更多必須確定選擇和工作模式與時間分配的挑戰。To be or not to be,現在真的是個頭痛的問題。
6.07.2007
Dame Mary Douglas (1921-2007)
(之前沒有特別注意到是因為,她的頭銜Dame讓我以為是其他人,實際上的意義是A female rank equivalent to a knigh,大概可以翻成女爵?)
Richard Fardon
Friday May 18, 2007
The Guardian
She was born in San Remo, Italy, the first child of Phyllis Twomey and Gilbert Tew. Her parents had stopped off en route to home leave from Burma, where her father served in the Indian civil service. Mary and her younger sister, Patricia, lived with their mother's parents in Totnes, Devon, until they were old enough to become boarders at the Sacred Heart Convent, in Roehampton, south-west London. After the early death of her mother, closely followed by that of the maternal grandfather to whom she was devoted, Mary found a sense of security in the relatively hierarchical, secluded and safe world of school. Her Catholic commitments and social preferences were set for life.
School was followed by wartime Oxford, where she read philosophy, politics and economics, and then by war service in the Colonial Office, where she met the social anthropologists. Intrigued by the subject, she returned to Oxford in 1946, initially to take a two-year conversion course, and then to register in 1949 for her doctorate in anthropology. The postwar re-establishment of the institute of social anthropology by Professor (later Sir) EE Evans-Pritchard was one of the major events in the development of the discipline; it educated an extraordinarily high proportion of Tew's generation, who went on to redefine the nature of contemporary anthropology. None, however, made a greater contribution to this than she did.
She undertook her fieldwork (1949-51 and 1953) in the Belgian Congo, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It eventuated in both a DPhil in 1952 and a monograph, The Lele of the Kasai, published in 1963. Her description of the matrilineal Lele, their gerontocracy, complex marriage arrangements and cults - most memorably that of the pangolin, or scaly ant eater - became a minor anthropological classic, but would not by itself be the reason for her fame. Civil war prevented further fieldwork, and Douglas did not return to the country, known from 1971 to 1997 as Zaire, until 1987. For all that she was a gifted field researcher and ethnographic writer, her wider renown was never based on her reputation as a fieldworker or on her ethnographic writings, although these established her competence within the profession.
In 1951, after a brief appointment at Oxford, she married James Douglas. Like her, he was a Catholic and had been born into a colonial family (in Simla, while his father served in the Indian army). James joined the Conservative party research department just as Mary took up an appointment at University College London (UCL), where she was to remain for a quarter of a century, and was professor of social anthropology from 1970 to 1977; a distinguished fellowship followed in 1994. If James was considered to be academic for a party official, and Mary unusually immersed in matters close to home for an anthropologist, an invitation to the Douglas dinner table soon dispelled any mystery.
In 1966, Douglas published her most celebrated work, Purity and Danger: an Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. This book is best remembered for its stylish demonstration of the ways in which all schemes of classification produce anomalies: whether the pangolin for the Lele, or the God incarnate of Catholic theology. Some of this classificatory "matter out of place" - from humble house dust in her Highgate house to the abominations of Leviticus for the Hebrews - was polluting, but other breaches of routine classification had the capacity to renew the world symbolically.
In Natural Symbols (1970), Douglas began to answer the question that arose from this: what kinds of society are best able to support the complex symbolism that makes the best society possible? The book took exception to some 1960s cultural trends - notably the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council and student revolts - and presented the first of many attempts to correlate features of institutional organisation with patterns of belief and morality. Her conclusion - that differentiated, hierarchical and bounded institutions provided the most condusive environments for complex thinking and symbolism - remained the same, whatever changes her theories underwent.
From 1977 until the mid-1980s the Douglases took up a variety of appointments in the United States. This period coincided with the publication of Mary's work most explicitly concerned with contemporary society. Her collaborative research on British consumers, The World of Goods (1979) with Baron Isherwood, was a pioneering work of the contemporary anthropology of consumption. In it, she argued both that contemporary consumption had ritual aspects that defined lifestyles, and that the increasing emphasis on individual consumption threatened a crisis in collective provision. If consumption was a form of communication, then those individuals who consumed less also communicated less.
While at the Russell Sage Foundation, New York (1977-81), with the late Aaron Wildavsky she co-authored Risk and Culture (1982), an analysis of risk perception and critique of alarmist environmental groupings that sparked a feeding frenzy among reviewers. At Northwestern University, Illinois, she occupied a chair jointly in anthropology and religious studies (1981-85, and then as professor emeritus), and published a string of articles on contemporary religion and social commitments.
On her return to Britain, back at UCL Douglas continued to publish a volume of her collected essays or a new book every few years, while being showered with professional honours and other recognitions, including a CBE in 1992 and a DBE this year. While a new generation of anthropologists might have forgotten how late this recognition came, Douglas, who had a particular fascination with the sociology of forgetting, did not. It was only in 1989 that, returned from the US, she was elected a fellow of the British Academy. Before her emigration, many in the anthropological establishment had considered her work marginal to the mainstream tradition, an indication in itself of how much the discipline changed during her career.
Two preoccupations were particularly apparent in Douglas's later work: refinement of her theoretical statements, notably in How Institutions Think (1986) and Missing Persons (1998), and a return to the analysis of the Old Testament that had been an important feature of Purity and Danger. This became the particular fascination of a trilogy that engaged her for two decades: 1993 saw the publication, after unusually protracted labours by the standards of Douglas's productivity, of In the Wilderness, a meditation on the literary construction and social context of the Book of Numbers; Leviticus as Literature followed in 1999, revising ideas about the Jewish dietary codes that Purity and Danger had made famous; and in 2004 Jacob's Tears completed the series, asking who had edited the Pentateuch, and how their aims might explain its textual form.
An invited lecture series allowed Douglas to collect her ideas about the poetics of ring composition, the technique in which texts are formed in circular patterns, in what she described as a summation: An Essay on Ring Composition appeared to her delight earlier this year. Aside from seeing her father's collected essays on fishing into print (they are promised soon), and hoping to collaborate with Congolese Lele scholars on a book using her 1950s photographs of material culture, she had completed all the work she felt she had in her.
Douglas's theoretical commitments to stability, loyalty and completion were evident in her own life: one marriage (from 1951 until James's death in 2004); one family home (from 1956 until she moved to a flat in Bloomsbury a year ago); leaving aside her American sojourn, half a century of service to UCL; and a lifetime of practising Catholicism. A similar singlemindedness was evident in her espousal and refinement of the theories she developed from her Oxford years, and her advocacy of the social policies that flowed from them.
As a colleague she could be intransigent in what she considered matters of principle, and she never dissembled her estimation of others. Her sense of humour was acute and in later years she enjoyed playing to her own reputation, gleefully recalling just how objectionable she had made herself to some American colleagues whose political correctness irked her, and accepting academic honours with mild irony, given what she recalled as her years in the wilderness. A wide circle of friends outside anthropology, and the like-minded within, will remember her capacity for encouragement and support of younger colleagues, an enthusiasm and curiosity that age only accentuated, and her boundless energy. She inveighed against exclusion; her hospitality was genuine and her home open to so many visitors that only the self-discipline of her work habits and her writing facility allowed her to achieve so much.
She is survived by her three children, Janet, James and Philip.
· Margaret Mary Douglas, anthropologist, born March 25 1921; died May 16 2007